Research&Report
Nanoscale 3D printing technology: Assessment in the example of Faulhaber NanoOne
Two-Photon Lithography, Industrial Applications and Precision Drive Technologies
This paper provides a comprehensive examination of two-photon lithography (2PL), a technology capable of producing structures at the nanometre scale. Grounded in the NanoOne platform developed by UpNano GmbH, the technology is analysed with respect to its operating principles, current application domains, and potential to drive industrial transformation. The paper places FAULHABER miniature drive motors — which play a critical role in the precise substrate positioning that underpins sub-200-nanometre horizontal resolution — at the centre of its technical discussion, while extending the broader argument to the nanoscale printing ecosystem as a whole.
Findings indicate that 2PL-based nanoprinting is laying the groundwork for fundamental change across strategic sectors including medicine, pharmaceuticals, telecommunications and defence. Three principal constraints shape the pace of the technology’s maturation: material diversity, the degree of process automation, and scalable production capacity.
The Significance of the Nanometre Scale
The word ‘nano’ derives from the ancient Greek for ‘dwarf’, yet in scientific contexts it refers to something far removed from smallness as a limitation: one billionth of a metre. Below this threshold, matter ceases to obey the mechanical, optical and electrical laws that govern the visible world; quantum effects, surface forces and photon-matter interactions become dominant. These properties make the nanometre scale both extraordinarily difficult to manufacture at and extraordinarily high in application value.
Conventional manufacturing methods fall short at this scale. Subtractive processes such as injection moulding and milling require physical contact and cannot approach sub-micron precision. Light-based lithography has long served as the foundational tool of the semiconductor industry; yet 2PL liberates these methods from the constraints of layer-by-layer fabrication, granting full three-dimensional freedom.
UpNano, a spin-off of the Vienna University of Technology, has constructed the critical bridge between field research and commercial product in this domain. The company’s NanoOne platform can produce structures across a scale range spanning from below 150 nanometres to over 40 millimetres in height — a versatility that makes it equally suited to research and industrial production.
2. Technological Foundation: Two-Photon Lithography
2.1 The Underlying Physics
Conventional light-based 3D printing methods — stereolithography (SLA) and digital light processing (DLP) among them — trigger photopolymerisation along the entire path of the laser beam. Structures must therefore be built layer by layer, a constraint that limits both resolution and geometric freedom.
Two-photon lithography overcomes this constraint through a fundamentally different quantum mechanism. A high-intensity laser, operating with pulses in the picosecond or femtosecond range, is tuned so that sufficient photon density is achieved only at the focal point within the material. At this point, two photons are absorbed simultaneously; their combined energy exceeds the polymerisation threshold that neither photon could cross alone. All other regions through which the beam travels remain unaffected.
The most critical advantage of this approach is that the focal point can be moved freely through the material. NanoOne’s high-performance optical system steers the laser focus through three-dimensional space, enabling the production of geometrically complex structures of virtually unlimited form. The requirement to build layer by layer is eliminated; the structure is formed directly in its three-dimensional shape.
2.2 Resolution Limits and Performance
The NanoOne system offers resolution below 200 nanometres horizontally and below 550 nanometres vertically. The asymmetry between the horizontal and vertical axes arises from the ellipsoidal geometry of the laser focal region — the ‘voxel’ — which is directly related to the numerical aperture of the focusing optics.
| Parameter | Value |
| Horizontal resolution | < 200 nm |
| Vertical resolution | < 550 nm |
| Structural scale range | < 150 nm – > 40 mm height |
| Throughput | > 450 mm³/hour |
| Lens options | 4 magnification/resolution combinations |
| Substrate positioning accuracy | Sub-micrometre (< 1 µm) |
The system’s volumetric throughput of over 450 mm³ per hour demonstrates its suitability not merely for research but for semi-industrial scale production. Four lens options optimising different resolution-speed trade-offs allow a single platform to address a wide range of application requirements.
2.3 The Material Ecosystem
The primary material class used in 2PL processing is negative-tone photoresists — photopolymer resins containing UV-sensitive photoinitiator molecules that are activated by two-photon absorption, forming crosslinked polymer chains. During the development stage, regions that have not undergone polymerisation are removed with a solvent, leaving the solidified three-dimensional structure behind.
A particularly notable capability of UpNano’s offering is its biocompatible resin formulations. These materials can encapsulate living cells; as the structure is being formed, cells in the surrounding unpolymerised regions remain viable. This property presents unique possibilities for in vitro tissue engineering and organoid research.
3. Precision Positioning: The Mechatronic Backbone of Nanoprinting
3.1 The Substrate Alignment Problem
Realising the theoretical resolution capability of 2PL in practice depends as critically on the mechanical positioning system as on the laser optics. If the substrate is misaligned prior to printing — as is virtually unavoidable during physical loading — the laser focus deviates from the material surface, resulting in defective structures.
The component developed by NanoOne to address this problem is the Automatic Tilt Correction Insert. This is a three-axis mechanism capable of moving the substrate independently along the x, y and z axes. The objective is to bring the print surface into perfect perpendicularity with the laser optical axis, achieving flatness in the sub-micrometre range.
3.2 FAULHABER 1512 SR IE2-8 Series: Design Rationale
The FAULHABER 1512 SR IE2-8 series precious metal commutated DC gearmotors with integrated encoder were selected as the drive elements for the three-axis positioning mechanism. This choice reflects the intersection of several core engineering requirements.
The first requirement is dimensional constraint. NanoOne’s compact housing demands that the drive system fit within a very small volume. With a diameter of 15 mm and a length of just 14.3 mm, the 1512 series delivers high torque output in an exceptionally small form factor.
The second requirement is torque density. Rare earth magnets provide an extraordinarily high magnetic flux relative to rotor mass. Precious metal commutation (SR) ensures consistent torque delivery at low speed ranges while minimising the arc formation that would otherwise introduce electrical noise.
The third requirement is feedback integration. The integrated optical encoder (IE2-8) delivers real-time position data to the control system directly within the motor housing. In the UpNano case, this integration was recommended by FAULHABER engineers rather than originating with UpNano’s own design — a demonstration of how supplier-customer engineering collaboration can translate directly into end-product quality.
| Motor Specification | Technical Value |
| Series | FAULHABER 1512 … SR IE2-8 |
| Diameter | 15 mm |
| Length | 14.3 mm |
| Commutation | Precious Metal (SR) |
| Winding technology | Flat, self-supporting copper winding (3 layers) |
| Magnet type | Rare Earth (NdFeB) |
| Feedback | Integrated optical encoder (IE2-8) |
| Application | X, Y, Z axis substrate positioning |
3.3 System Isolation and Vibration Management
Achieving sub-micrometre accuracy requires that the mechanical positioning system be isolated from environmental vibrations and thermal expansion. In the NanoOne design, the relevant components are mechanically decoupled from the outer housing and surrounding technology. As a result, the system can be placed on any stable table surface without requiring dedicated vibration-damping platforms — a design choice that both reduces cost and improves the portability of the system to environments outside the laboratory.
4. Application Domains and Sectoral Analysis
4.1 Medical Technology and Tissue Engineering
Medical technology is the domain in which nanoprinting generates the highest added value. Cell scaffold structures are three-dimensional lattice systems that replicate the complex geometry of organic tissue. Achieving these geometries at sub-micron precision with conventional manufacturing methods is not feasible.
Scaffolds produced by 2PL serve several critical functions in tissue engineering: providing cell attachment surfaces, offering mechanical support, and spatially directing biochemical signals. In prints made with biocompatible resins, living cells can be directly embedded. This capability transforms three-dimensional cell culture models into in vitro experimental platforms, enabling pharmaceutical testing without animal experiments.
Micro-endoscope lenses represent one of the most mature clinical device applications of nanoprinting. Aspheric lenses printed directly onto the end face of individual glass fibres enable imaging at diameters where conventional optical components cannot be placed. Minimally invasive procedures and in vivo imaging at the cellular level are the primary targets for this application.
4.2 Pharmaceutical Research and Animal Testing Alternatives
Organ-on-chip platforms — candidates to replace animal models in drug development — represent another strategically significant application area for nanoprinting. Microstructures that replicate human tissue architecture allow drug candidates to be tested at the cellular level. This approach also aligns with growing international regulatory pressure to reduce animal experimentation.
The fact that the vast majority of UpNano’s customers do not disclose publicly what they are producing reflects the scale of the industry’s investment in this field from a competitive confidentiality standpoint. Among the rare disclosed applications are in vitro fertilisation tools used in work with individual egg cells.
4.3 Photonics and Telecommunications
Lenses printed onto the ends of glass fibres improve light collection efficiency in fibre-to-fibre connections. This application carries strategic significance at a time of accelerating investment in 5G and fibre optic infrastructure. Components that currently require adhesive bonding or mechanical assembly can be printed directly onto the fibre end face, reducing fabrication steps and eliminating alignment errors.
Three-dimensional printed structures integrated into microfluidic platforms represent an expanding application space in this field as well. The ability to print additional structures inside existing microfluidic chips extends chip functionality under field conditions.
4.4 Emerging Application Areas
Fully functional micro roller bearings with moving parts have been produced by nanoprinting. Such structures dramatically reduce prototyping costs in MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) development. Micro-energy harvesting, structural components for nano-satellites, and microcapsules for targeted drug delivery systems are among the applications on the near horizon.
5. Comparative Analysis: 2PL and Competing Technologies
A comparison of nanometre-scale manufacturing technologies clarifies the strengths and constraints of each approach.
| Technology | Resolution / Key Constraints |
| Two-photon lithography (2PL) | < 200 nm; full 3D freedom; slower area scanning |
| Stereolithography (SLA) | ~25–50 µm; layer-based; speed advantage |
| Electron Beam Lithography (EBL) | < 10 nm; 2D only; requires vacuum |
| Nanoimprint Lithography (NIL) | < 10 nm; requires master mould; 2D |
| Inkjet-based nanoprinting | > 1 µm; fast; limited material range |
| Focused Ion Beam (FIB) | ~5 nm; destructive; very slow |
2PL’s defining competitive advantage is that it is the only method combining high resolution with genuine three-dimensional freedom. Electron beam lithography achieves comparable resolutions but requires a vacuum environment and is confined to two dimensions. Nanoimprint offers high resolution but demands a custom master mould for each new geometry, rendering flexible prototyping economically unviable.
2PL’s principal limitation is throughput. Its point-by-point scanning approach is slower than high-throughput parallel production methods. UpNano’s 450 mm³/hour figure represents a significant improvement on earlier systems, yet additional advances are required for high-volume industrial production outside niche application areas.
6. Miniature Drive Technologies in Nanotechnology Applications
6.1 Drive Systems in Precision Applications
In nanotechnology applications, motion and positioning systems are critical infrastructure that directly determines the quality of the final product. The FAULHABER case is a study that makes this reality concrete. However, the need for precision positioning extends well beyond nanoprinting; nanoscale characterisation tools (AFM, SEM), nano-satellite attitude control systems and small surgical robots all share broadly similar drive requirements.
Precious metal commutation has become a standard choice for precision positioning applications by virtue of the smooth torque it delivers at low speed ranges. Arc formation and torque ripple, characteristic of brushed motor designs, can be substantially reduced through meticulous engineering of the commutator-brush interface. Rare earth magnets (NdFeB) provide the highest magnetic flux density relative to volume, making it possible to reduce motor form factor without sacrificing performance.
6.2 The Integrated Encoder: Importance of Closed-Loop Control
Open-loop drive systems are insensitive to load variations; the number of steps applied determines position, but actual position cannot be verified without feedback. In applications such as nanoprinting, where sub-micrometre accuracy is mandatory, this introduces an unacceptable source of uncertainty.
The optical encoder integrated into the motor housing continuously relays real position data to the control system. This architecture enables automatic correction when positional deviations are detected whether caused by thermal expansion, substrate weight changes or mechanical compliance. The fact that FAULHABER engineers proposed the encoder integration to UpNano, rather than the customer requesting it, illustrates how supplier-level engineering collaboration translates directly into end-product quality.
7. Discussion: Constraints, Opportunities and Future Directions
7.1 Technological Constraints
The most significant barriers to the widespread adoption of 2PL technology begin with material diversity. Current photopolymer resins offer specific mechanical and thermal properties, while the direct nanoprinting of metals, ceramics or semiconductors remains at the research stage. Indirect approaches — hybrid methods in which a polymer scaffold is printed and subsequently metallised — partially bridge this gap.
A second constraint is process automation. Systems like NanoOne are semi-automated, yet substrate preparation, post-print development and quality control still require human intervention. This limits the economic viability of transitioning to serial production in terms of both energy and labour costs.
A third constraint is scalability. Current systems are optimised for laboratory and small-series production. Achieving large-scale parallel printing capacity requires either coordinated operation of multiple systems or parallel laser head architectures. This capital investment strains the cost structure outside the niche areas where 2PL is most competitive.
7.2 Future Research Directions
In the field of laser sources, fibre lasers and solid-state lasers offer a meaningful cost advantage over conventional Ti:Sapphire lasers for femtosecond pulse generation. This transition simultaneously reduces total system cost and maintenance requirements.
AI-driven process optimisation is becoming an increasingly critical area of investigation. The complex interaction among laser power, scan speed and focal geometry is resistant to traditional parametric optimisation. Machine learning approaches are discovering optimum points in this high-dimensional parameter space that conventional engineering cannot reach.
In bioprinitng, increasing cell viability rates during the production of living-cell-containing structures spans a broad research agenda running from resin biocompatibility to post-print culture conditions. Progress in this area could accelerate the transition in drug development from animal models to human-cell-based platforms.
7.3 The Industrial Ecosystem and Supply Chain
The value chain of nanoprinting systems comprises several tightly coupled layers: laser sources, optical systems, precision drive and positioning, control electronics, and photopolymer resins. Competence at each of these layers translates directly into final product quality. As the FAULHABER case demonstrates, sub-component selection should not be made on the basis of performance parameters alone, but within the framework of system-level integrity.
Supply chain reliability carries particular strategic weight in this field. Rare earth element magnets sit at the centre of critical mineral dependency debates. Research into supplier diversification and material substitution represents one of the priority agenda items for the sector’s long-term resilience.
8. Conclusion
Nanoscale 3D printing technology is opening to industrial use the manufacturing capabilities that, a decade ago, were confined to research laboratories. UpNano’s NanoOne platform represents a significant milestone in translating 2PL’s theoretical potential into a concrete commercial product.
The principal findings established in this paper may be summarised as follows. 2PL is an unrivalled method for producing truly three-dimensional structures at high resolution. However, realising the technology’s full potential is contingent on systematically overcoming the constraints in material development, automation and scaling. Precision mechanical positioning carries equal weight to laser optical quality as a system component; the role of FAULHABER miniature gearmotors in the NanoOne confirms this.
Demand across strategically significant application areas — led by medicine, pharmaceuticals, photonics and defence — will drive rapid growth in the nanoprinting ecosystem over the coming decade. To benefit from this growth, companies in the supplier position must offer not only technical competence but a systems-level engineering mindset and the capacity to develop solutions specific to customer applications.
References and Further Reading
- UpNano GmbH, ‘NanoOne Technical Specifications’, product documentation, 2025.
- Fischer, J., Wegener, M. ‘Three-dimensional optical laser lithography beyond the diffraction limit’, Laser & Photonics Reviews, 2013.
- FAULHABER Group, ‘1512 SR IE2-8 Series Technical Catalogue’, 2024.
- Jonušauskas, L. et al. ‘Optically Clear and Resilient Free-Form μ-Optics 3D-Printed via Ultrafast Laser Lithography’, Materials, 2019.
- Raimondi, M.T. et al. ‘Three-dimensional structural niches engineered via two-photon laser polymerization’, Acta Biomaterialia, 2013.
- Malinauskas, M. et al. ‘Ultrafast laser nanostructuring of photopolymers’, Progress in Quantum Electronics, 2016.
- CCEE Technology Research Unit, source document: FAULHABER GROUP – 3D PRINTING industry note, 2025.
